Informational Pieces

Pointe Shoes By: Dana Gottlieb Have you ever wondered how ballerinas like Misty Copeland, Gelsey Kirkland, and Anna Pavlova made their dancing look so effortless, as if they were floating on air? Look no further than their feet. Ballerinas wear a special type of shoe, called a pointe shoe, to help them dance on the tips of their toes and give the illusion that they are gliding across the stage. These days, pointe shoes are synonymous with ballet, but this wasn’t always the case. The pointe shoes that ballerinas wear today are the product of hundreds of years of innovation by dancers and scientists who have worked to engineer a shoe that is supportive and allows ballerinas the most flexibility in their movement. Modern ballet dates back to 17th century France, where the first dance company, the Academie Royale de Danse, was established by King Louis XIV. The establishment of the Academie Royale de Danse helped standardize the names and technique for the dance steps that are still in use today. Ballet evolved out of the traditional Italian court dances that had been introduced into French society in the previous century. These court dances involved extravagant costumes and were often part of larger celebrations. King Louis XIV was particularly fond of dancing in and watching these productions. Prior to the invention of pointe shoes, men were the central focus of most ballet dancing; women played a secondary role. This can be attributed largely to the difference in attire each gender was expected to wear while dancing in the French courts. Men wore tights, as they do today, which allowed them to jump and dance with greater range of motion. Women, however, were expected to wear high heels, gigantic wigs with headdresses, large skirts, and corsets. Individually, none of these articles of clothing was conducive to much movement. Collectively, these costumes made it nearly impossible for women to move with any grace. Ballet changed once women were allowed to wear flat ballet shoes and dance in more comfortable costumes. Court dance costumes restricted women’s dancing to no more than transitioning from pose to pose, with little other movements in between. Once they were no longer confined by their clothing, women began to jump, leap, and turn much more when they danced. With this new freedom, dancers and choreographers began experimenting with different types of movement, including rising high up on the balls of their feet, also known as demi pointe, while they moved. The first recorded instance of dancers rising all the way on their toes occurred in 1795 with Charles Didelot’s invention of the “flying machine.” This contraption helped ballerinas appear to be on the tips of their toes just before they leapt into the air. It wasn’t until 1832, when Marie Taglioni danced an entire ballet en pointe, that dancers and choreographers began to discover the endless possibilities of movement. Ballet historians believe that dancers had been dancing on their toes for as long as 100 years prior to these recorded instances, however, this was most likely done on the way into other positions or for fleeting moments as a stunt meant to grab the audience’s attention. The earliest pointe shoes only distantly resembled their modern relative. Once women abandoned wearing heeled shoes, flat-bottomed shoes became the new standard for ballet dancing. Initially, dancers experimented with darning and stitching regular ballet shoes to reinforce the fabric around their toes. Even with the modifications, ballet shoes were not strong enough to support a dancer on her toes for long periods of time. Anytime a dancer rose to her toes she had to compensate for the lack of support in her shoes by using more of her leg strength to support her body. As dance steps became more intricate and demanding modified ballet shoes were no longer sufficient. Pointe shoes needed to evolve to provide support for the dancers’ feet. Most pointe shoes are still made by hand. Modern pointe shoes are comprised of three distinct parts. The box is the part of the shoe that supports the dancer’s toes while she is en pointe. It is made of fabric and paper held together by glue. The glue hardens the fabric and paper to create a supportive casing for the ballerina’s foot. The shank is found inside the sole of the shoe. Usually a piece of leather or plastic, the shank supports the arch in the dancer’s foot. The sole of a pointe shoe needs to be stiffer so that it will not bend too easily, which would put too much strain on the dancer’s foot. The ribbons and elastic at the back of the shoe go around the dancer’s ankle to provide support and to ensure that the shoe will stay on her foot while she is dancing. Because each dancer’s feet are unique in size, shape, and arch, pointe shoes are often custom made to fit each individual dancer. Many factors are taken into consideration when fitting dancers for their pointe shoes, including the width, size, and shape of their feet, the height of their arch, and the length of their toes. Ballerinas train for years before being allowed to dance in pointe shoes. Dancing en pointe requires a great deal of strength in the feet, legs, and core. A dancer who starts using pointe shoes when she is too young or too early into her training can risk serious injury. The next time you go to the theater to enjoy a production of The Nutcracker or Swan Lake, take a moment to notice and appreciate the ballerinas’ feet. Her elegance and grace as she floats across the stage are a result of hundreds of years of experimentation and thousands of hours of practice and hard work. Sources: http://historycooperative.org/the-pointe-shoe-a-history/ http://proteus.brown.edu/13things/7615 http://www.dancer.com/hist2.php

https://www.australianballet.com.au/education/about_ballet/the_pointe_shoe

The War at Home

by Vera Schneider

With the recent release of the blockbuster movie American Sniper in 2015, America has gotten an inside look at the internal war our soldiers wage when they return home.  The movie gives viewers a glimpse into the mental state of soldiers and the challenges of adjusting to civilian life.  The Veteran Affairs (VA) reported in 2011 that one in every four veterans receiving VA services from the post 9/11 wars is being treated for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).  PTSD  is defined by the American Psychiatric Association as an anxiety disorder caused by an incident of significant stress. PTSD can be found among survivors of major catastrophes like the Holocaust or natural disasters.  It can also be prevalent in individuals who experience car accidents,sexual/physical assaults, and traumatic experiences such as combat.  

PTSD is getting a great deal of attention in today’s world.  Between 2004 and 2012 the amount of deployed soldiers being diagnosed with PTSD has grown by 400%.  The growing number of deployed soldiers being diagnosed in recent years may lead one to think that PTSD is a new phenomenon.  On the contrary, instances of PTSD date back as far as 400 B.C.  The modern name is a far cry from the original terms, “nostalgia”, “shell shock”, “gross stress reaction,” and “battle fatigue” to name a few.

Greek historian Herodotus documented instances of stress induced anxiety on the battlefields in 480 B.C.  Spartan leader Leonidas dismissed several soldiers before the Battle of Thermoplyae because he could tell that they were psychologically worn out from previous battles saying, “They had no heart for the fight.”  

One of the first documented attempts at diagnosing soldiers with PTSD was by a military physician in 1678.  The behaviors were defined as “nostalgia”.  The symptoms included melancholy, thinking of home, insomnia, loss of appetite, cardiac palpitations and fever.  Around the same time the Germans gave a name to the phenomena, calling it heimwech which means, “homesickness.”  Despite the serious symptoms, physicians were giving the phenomena names that did not imply the seriousness of the condition.

With the American Civil war in 1861 came a name associated more with fear of battle, than with the trauma associated with war.  “Soldiers heart” had similar symptoms which included emotional ups and downs, paralysis, uncontrollable shaking of the hands and feet, severe palpitations, and self-inflicted wounds.  Civil War physicians noted that men returning home from war would display symptoms that they never exhibited while near the battlefields.  As a result of the many reports of psychiatric breakdown, commanders and doctors asked the War Department to provide screening to avoid recruiting soldiers that may be prone to a breakdown.  In an effort to solve the problem, the most extreme cases were removed from service.  “They were put on trains with no supervision, the name of their hometown or state pinned to their tunics, others were left to wander the countryside until they died from exposure or starvation,” reported Richard A. Gabriel, a chronicler of PTSD.

The Civil War left many American soldiers mentally damaged.  The increasing number of sick soldiers caused the military to open the Government Hospital for the Insane in Washington D.C.  Since the public’s previous notions about mentally ill soldiers included weakness and lack of bravery soldiers were not eager to be admitted to the Government Hospital for the Insane. Soldiers were often ashamed of receiving treatment and resistant to seek help.  Shortly after the Civil war ended in 1865 the government shutdown the hospital due to lack of funding.

In 1914, World War I brought with it new technological advances in warfare.  The use of heavy artillery and trench warfare impacted the soldiers like never before.  The term “shell shock” emerged from this period because physicians believed that large caliber artillery was producing concussions which impacted the brains of soldiers.  By the end of World War I psychiatrists were beginning to realize that the physiological symptoms of “shell shock” were not attributed to the emotional troubles experienced by soldiers.  Despite this realization, they continued to associate the emotional state of soldiers as a sign of weakness rather than a psychological disorder brought on by conditions of war.  

The progress made during the first world war helped jump start the efforts to diagnose soldiers having the same symptoms during World War II.  New nomenclature was identified for the soldiers of the second world war.  They called it, “traumatic war neurosis”, “combat fatigue”, and “battle stress”.  The name that stuck for this time period was “gross stress reaction”.  This was the term coined by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)when they were asked to develop a manual for diagnosing soldiers coming home from battle.  The term was defined as a stress syndrome caused by extreme physical and mental stress.  This was a huge step toward acknowledging the struggles of soldiers returning home from war.  

Although the APA had defined the symptoms post World War II there was little progress toward treatment plans during peace times.  The modern day term “posttraumatic stress syndrome” didn’t emerge until after the Vietnam War.  Clinicians began to use the term to describe individuals with varying levels of the syndrome.  The symptoms used to diagnose post traumatic stress syndrome include re-experiencing the trauma, a numbing of responsiveness and cognitive symptoms.

It’s hard to believe that a condition associated with soldiers at war time that has existed since the Greek and Roman civilizations is continually being redefined and successful treatment remains in the stages of development.  Through looking at the history of PTSD the most common trend was that while physicians had to deal with these symptoms they made efforts to find solutions.  The eb and flow of peace and war times had great impact on the movement toward treatment of soldiers returning home from war.  When the symptoms of PTSD were impacting war efforts they were of concern, but periods of peace brought little further investigation into the matter.

Modern day media has taken it upon itself to bring PTSD to the nation’s attention.  Movies like American Sniper and Brothers and the portrayal of war veterans on television shows like Grey’s Anatomy and Homeland provide a glimpse into the symptoms.  Our society has come a long way in understanding PTSD but the negative stigma surrounding mental illness in our society continues to limit the treatment our soldiers need to be well again.  The VA has countless programs for veterans needing services for PTSD or other mental, or medical needs.  Through deleting the stigma of mental illness and encouraging loved ones returning home to proactively seek help, the future of treatment for PTSD will include a cure.  

https://historyofptsd.wordpress.com/recent-history/

http://www.vva.org/archive/TheVeteran/2005_03/feature_HistoryPTSD.htm

http://www.brainline.org/content/2011/01/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-a-history-and-a-critique_pageall.html

Mark Thompson, “Unlocking the Secrets of PTSD.” TIME. April 6, 2015

        

Bees are Taking Off

Susan Preston

European honeybee and North American bee populations are declining in recent years due primarily to habitat loss and destruction.  Pesticides, extreme weather changes, colony collapse disorder, and diseases have also contributed to this population decline.  While this news may not alarm some people, scientists would argue that it should.   “Close to 90% of the world’s plants rely on bees for fertilization and reproduction,” including many of the plants people eat (Suzuki and Moola, 2009).  While there are other pollinators out there, such as butterflies, bats, and hummingbirds, bees are the most common.  Without bees, people would struggle to survive.

            Recently a possible solution to the world’s bee problem has surfaced in the most unlikely places: airports.  In 1999, Germany became the first country to use their airports’ wide-open fields as a new habitat for beehives, or apiaries.  Their reasoning was simple: beekeepers need more space and airports have space to spare.  Due to safety and noise regulations, cities are not allowed to build on the open land near airports.  Thus, Germany decided to use this open space to increase bee populations, produce honey, and test air quality.  Scientists use the honey the bees produce to test for carbon monoxide.  If there are unsafe levels of carbon monoxide in the air, it affects the plants, and thus the bees, and eventually the honey the bees produce.  Germany uses this test to prove that they are doing their part to cut down on carbon monoxide levels at their airports.  As one final gesture of good will, if the honey is free of carbon monoxide, Germany gives it away for free to the public.

            After Germany’s success with beehives, a few other cities have jumped on the bandwagon, including Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport.  In 2011, Rosemarie Andolino, the aviation commissioner at O’Hare, approached Brenda Palms Barber, founder of Sweet Beginnings, a nonprofit that sets up and manages beehives to produce skincare products and honey.  In an effort to make O’Hare greener, she asked Barber to start an apiary on the open fields of O’Hare.  Barber, who was looking to expand from her 131 beehives around Chicago, agreed to start with 25 beehives at O’Hare.  Since this partnership formed, the O’Hare apiary has grown from 25 to 75 beehives, which house over a million bees, the largest apiary at any airport in the world!

            Sweet Beginnings not only helps to repopulate bees, they also provide job training for individuals who have been incarcerated and other disadvantaged people from their community.  Sweet Beginnings has formed partnerships with Chicago’s Department of Family Support Services and the North Lawndale Employment Network (NLEN) to ensure that people receive a second chance in life.  NLEN is responsible for furnishing, installing, monitoring, and maintaining the beehives at O’Hare.  The honey produced in these hives is processed and distributed as part of Sweet Beginnings’ honey-based skincare products, and also as consumable honey.  These products are all sold at O’Hare’s Farmers Market in terminal three. 

Sweet Beginnings and others have enjoyed success keeping bees in urban habitats because there are people around to manage the hives, urban environments offer a variety of flowers for the bees to pollinate, and there are no agricultural pesticides to endanger the bees.  In fact, O’Hare has proven to be quite the successful habitat for honeybees, producing 1,200 pounds of honey in the first year alone!  This initiative has also received recognition outside of the bee community.  In 2012 O’Hare won two awards for Environmental Achievement from Airports Council International and Urban Land Institute’s Chicago Vision Award.

Yet there are some that fear the presence of so many bees near the world’s busiest airport may cause some operational issues.  This concern was put to rest last July after a swarm of bees appeared near one of the airport’s gates.  It was determined that the bees most likely were not from the airport’s apiary, but were in fact wild bees.  The airport gates are more than three miles away from the hives, which is outside the natural foraging range of the bees.  This problem was also dealt with quickly and smoothly thanks to the head beekeeper, John Hansen, who carefully removed the bees using a special vacuum.  For now it appears that the bees are truly flying the friendly skies with minimal turbulence.

The Secret of Cathay Williams
by Grace Pigozzi

Throughout history, women have occasionally posed as men in order to gain access to a variety of professions and adventures: from piracy to exploration to military service.

Until the 20^th century, the US military was segregated, and women were not allowed to serve. In 1866, Congress established all-black units that later became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. Their role was to protect settlers from Native American attacks. After the Indian Wars ended, some units served in the Spanish-American and Philippine Wars. Buffalo Soldiers later became some of the first US National Park Rangers in Yosemite, Sequoia, and King’s Canyon national parks.

Cathay Williams was a slave, born in Missouri, who was freed by Union Soldiers during the Civil War. She went to work for the Federal Army as a paid servant to military officers. While working as a cook and laundress to General Philip Sheridan, she witnessed battles in Georgia, Virginia, Iowa, and Louisiana. In an effort to maintain her financial independence, Williams disguised herself as a man, and enlisted as William Cathay, a cook, in the 38^th US Infantry in St. Louis in 1866.

That year, she marched with troops to Fort Riley, Kansas. Later, the regiment traveled Fort Union, New Mexico, more than 500 miles away, and then to Fort Cummings, New Mexico. They were stationed there for eight months, protecting miners and traveling immigrants from Apache attack. There is no record that Williams ever saw direct combat while enlisted

In December 1867, a brief mutiny broke out in when a camp follower was expelled for stealing money. Several men were brought up on charges or jailed, but Williams was not among them. Activity and the tension of keeping her secret about her gender affected her health. She was recorded as being in four different hospitals on five separate occasions that year. Amazingly, during these various hospitalizations, it was never discovered that she was female.

It was during a hospitalization in 1868 following a march to Fort Bayard, New Mexico that it was finally discovered that she was a woman. Four months later, William Cathey and was discharged at Fort Bayard with a certificate of disability. Statements from the captain of her company and the post's assistant surgeon deem her “feeble both physically and mentally, and much of the time quite unfit for duty,” and “continually on sick report without benefit.” However, she was honorably discharged and remains on record as the first and only woman to ever serve as a Buffalo Soldier.

She remained in New Mexico until 1872 when she moved to Colorado. She worked as both laundress and nurse. Her health continued to fail, and she lost her hearing. When she filed for an Army pension in 1891, she was denied on the basis that her disabilities existed prior to her Army service. Little else is known about the end of her life. Sources say she died between 1892 and 1900 when her name no longer appears on census rolls.

Sources: “Buffalo Soldiers of the American West,” “The Legacy of West Ford,” “Legends of America”